One of the oldest human desires is to understand oneself and other persons. And it is often much harder to understand oneself!

One instrument that may make it easier are personality tests.

A personality test aims to distinguish aspects of a person’s that stay stable throughout that person’s life-time, the individual’s character pattern of conduct, ideas, and feelings.

Already the old Greeks…

An early model of personality was posited by Greek philosopher/physician Hippocrates.

His theory divided personalities into four groups, depending on which bodily fluid was dominating the personality, into sanguinic, choleric, melancholic and phlegmatic

Modern tests

The 20th century heralded a new interest in defining and identifying separate personality types, in close correlation with the emergence of the of psychology. As such, several different tests emerged; some attempt to find specific features, while others attempt to describe personality as a whole.

There are many different types of personality tests. Common personality tests consist of a large number of items, where test subjects must grade the pertinence of each item to themselves.

Projective tests, such as the TAT and ink blot tests are another type of personality test which attempt to measure personality indirectly.

Scoring

Personality tests can be scored using a dimensional, where different aspects of personality ar rated on scales, or a typological, where each aspect is placed either in one type or in another, approach.

Dimensional approaches such as the Big 5 describe personality as a set of continuous dimensions on which individuals differ.

Typological approaches such as the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator describe opposing categories of functioning where individuals differ. Normative answers for each category can be graphed as gaussian curves (normal curves), implying that some aspects of personality are better than others.

Ipsative test responses offer two equally “good” responses between which an individual must choose. Such responses (e.g., on the MBTI) would result in bi-modal graphs for each category, rather than bell curves.

Personality tests such as the Strength Deployment Inventory (r), which assesses motivation, or purpose, of behavior, rather than the behavior itself, combine a dimensional and typological approach as described here. Three continuums of motivation are combined to yield 7 distinct types.

Many, but by no means all, psychological researchers believe that the dimensional approach is more accurate, although as judged by the popularity of the Myers-Briggs tool, typological approaches have substantial appeal as a self-development tool.

Few personality tests accurately predict behavior in a specific context. For example, with some of the five factor model tests, only one of the five factors is significantly correlated with job performance.

Emotive tests can become prey to unreliable results as most people strive to pick the answer they feel the best fitting of an ideal character and therefore not their personal response.

Test evaluation

There are several criteria for evaluating a personality test. Fundamentally, a personality test is expected to demonstrate reliability (produce similar results when a person takes the test again) and validity (the results show what they claim to show).

Criticism and controversy

Biased test taker interpretation

One problem of a personality test is that the users of the test could only find it accurate because of the subjective validation involved. This is where the person only acknowledges the information that applies to them. This is related to what is called in psychology as the Forer effect.

Personality versus social factors

In the 60s and 70s some psychologists dismissed the whole idea of personality, considering much behaviour to be content specific. This idea was supported by the fact that personality often does not predict behaviour in specific contexts. However, more extensive research has showed than when behaviour is aggregated across contexts, that personality can be a modest to good predictor of behaviour. Almost all psychologists now acknowledge that both social and individual difference factors (i.e., personality) influence behaviour. The debate is currently more around the relative importance of each of these factors and how these factors interact.

Respondent faking

One problem with self-report measures of personality is that respondents are often able to distort their responses. This is particularly problematic in employment contexts and other contexts where important decisions are being made and there is an incentive to present oneself in a favourable manner. Work in experimental settings (e.g., Viswesvaran & Ones, 1999; Martin, Bowen & Hunt, 2002) has clearly shown that when student samples have been asked to deliberately fake on a personality test, they clearly demonstrated that they are capable of doing so.

Several strategies have been adopted for reducing respondent faking. One strategy involves providing a warning on the test that methods exist for detecting faking and that detection will result in negative consequences for the respondent (e.g., not being considered for the job). Forced choice item formats (ipsative testing) have been adopted which require respondents to choose between alternatives of equal social desirability. Social desirability and lie scales are often included which detect certain patterns of responses, although these are often confounded by true variability in social desirability. More recently, Item Response Theory approaches have been adopted with some success in identifying item response profiles that flag fakers. Other researchers are looking at the timing of responses on electronically administered tests to assess faking.

Psychological Research

Personality testing is frequently used in psychological research to test various theories of personality.

Research published by David Dunning of Cornell University, Chip Heath of Stanford University and Jerry M. Suls of the University of Iowa reveals that observers who are not involved in any type of relationship with an individual are better judges of the individual’s relationships and abilities. These workers have studied a large body of investigations into self-evaluation, indicating that individuals may have flawed views about themselves and their social relationships, sometimes leading to decisions that can impact negatively on other persons’ lives and/or their own.

Additional applications

A study by American Management Association reveals that 39 percent of companies surveyed use personality testing as part of their hiring process. However, ipsative personality tests are often misused in recruitment and selection, where they are mistakenly treated as if they are normative measures.[1] More people are using personality testing to evaluate their business partners, their dates and their spouses. Salespeople are using personality testing to better understand the needs of their customers and to gain a competitive edge in the closing of deals. College students have started to use personality testing to evaluate their roommates. Lawyers are beginning to use personality testing for criminal behavior analysis, litigation profiling, witness examination and jury selection.

Dangers of using personality tests

It is easy for personality test participants to become complacent about their own personal uniqueness and instead become dependent on the decription associated with them. This can be potentially dangerous with persons who are already suffering from a form of identity disorder or may be a catalyst to instigate particular behaviours in a person who was previously believed to be of sound mental health.

Examples of personality tests

    * The Rorschach inkblot test was introduced in 1921 as a way to determine personality by the interpretation of abstract inkblots.

    * Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is a 16-type indicator based on Carl Jung’s Psychological Types, developed during World War II by Isabel Myers and Katherine Briggs.

    * Keirsey Temperament Sorter developed by David Keirsey is influenced by Isabel Myers sixteen types and Ernest Kretschmer’s four types.

    * The 16PF Questionnaire (16PF) was developed by Raymond Cattell and his colleagues in the 1940’s and 1950’s in a search to try to discover the basic traits of human personality using scientific methodology. The test was first published in 1949, and is now in its 5th edition, published in 1994. It is used in a wide variety of settings for individual and marital counseling, career counseling and employee development, in educational settings, and for basic research.

     * The Strength Deployment Inventory, developed by Elias Porter, Ph.D. in 1971 and is based on his theory of Relationship Awareness. Porter was the first known psychometrician to use colors (Red, Green and Blue) as shortcuts to communicate the results of a personality test.

Retirement is a time of transition and new beginnings for the person who has worked their entire life. When considering retirement gift ideas, you have a chance to make their present fun and memorable. Although their employer or corporation will be giving them a gift as well, your gift can have that personal touch that a company gift just won’t have.

Standard retiree gifts from corporations include pen sets, passport holders, desk clocks, wall clocks, paperweights, ornaments, company stock options, money clips, luggage, watches, grooming and manicure sets and of course, awards or plaques. Although thoughtful, let’s face it, they are all rather boring items. They tend to collect dust somewhere in the back of the closet and will never see the light of day.

That is why you should choose a retiree gift that is a bit more personal. Picture frames with photos of the retiree and his or her co-workers, photo albums filled with pictures and bar ware or decanter sets can all be personalized for a thoughtful and special touch. What is great about any of these retirement gift ideas is that all of them can easily be used and displayed for many years to come. 

If the retiree is leaving the military, then there are lots of stores both online and in the real world that sell wonderful items to honor those who have served in the armed forces. Personalized retirement gifts include rings, watches and collectibles, which allow the retiree to proudly display items that commemorate their military service, of which they are no doubt especially proud. If your retiree isn’t leaving the military, but rather a corporate desk job, then items that would make good gifts for them include jewelry boxes, valet trays, MP3 cases, wine, coffee, tea or chocolate lover gift sets, signed picture frames, card sets or personalized poems.

Retirement gift baskets come in a large variety of themes and are sure to please even the most discriminating retiree. Golfing accessories like shoe bags, iron covers and even golfing lessons can help them to pursue their hobby. Wine gifts sets like ornate glassware, carafes, stoppers and carrying cases can be thoughtful additions to any wine lovers collection.

Once you have some retirement gift ideas, it’s time to go shopping. The internet is a prime source of retiree gifts. You can shop when it’s most convenient for you; no store hours, traffic or fighting for a parking space to worry with. You sometimes can find even better savings on retiree gifts online than in the strip mall near your home. As an added bonus, some online retailers offer free shipping to sweeten the deal.

A little about the author behind this post:

James Harmon, is a creative writer who enjoys writing and talking on a variety of subject and has several blogs as well as writing for some well known magazines in his spare time.

James also writes LLC forms for a leading law firm. If you are interested in LLC forms for your business partnership, then http:// llcforms.org holds some great recourses on the subject.

Are Anderson replacement windows a consideration for your home? Lets consider the options and the consequences of upgrading your homes look and potential value. There are two routes to go down; do-it-yourself or the hiring contractors way.

DIY Anderson Window Replacement

Do it Yourself projects are way more popular today than they have been in the past and they can also be a lot of fun to do.

There are lots of home improvement projects you can do yourself that will not only make your home more attractive but add value also. Is Anderson replacement windows one of them? This is a very difficult project and a good amount of understanding and skills are required to take on such tough projects.

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Anderson Replacement Windows Contractors

Contractors on the other hand can offer a relatively stress-free experience. The downside is that to become a contractor merely requires someone to hand over a nominal annual small fee. With Anderson replacement windows, you can perform like a contractor, even without training or owning a truck, office, company or sophisticated tools. Therefore, you should always ensure that the contractors handling your job have been properly licensed, have local references, have an established infrastructure and are able to offer lien waiver. These items are all indicative of a person who has been operating for some time and ought to be trustworthy. A recommendation from family, friends or neighbor will go a long way in this situation.

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If you are looking to add instant value to your home you need to check out Anderson replacement windows for their wide range of variety. They come in a whole range of prices and can offer various colors to truly appeal to those seeking low maintenance lifestyle. Screens can be fitted and used as well as a host of other options.

Is Anderson replacement windows the best option for your home? It’s certainly understandable if you want someone else to deal with all the stress and red tape. You can also find specialized professionals in your area who are experienced, can guarantee a good job with minimal disruption in a reasonable time frame, and are available for you to contact with virtually no wait or hassle. Having a contractor to a quote means that they will meet your requirements for the price, the value and the quality so that you will be satisfied with the work, windows, and price.

Windows made today can offer significantly better energy efficiency than those produced during the past few decades. Some high end windows have insulated argon gas contained between a pair of windows panes that have a coating to reflect sun rays. State-of-the-art windows options will provide your house with an additional layer of insulation. Once you replace your windows, you should expect your heating bill to go down. Properly installed windows ensure the best insulation for your house. Therefore, you should be sure to protect your window investment by making certain that the installers are experienced professionals. A professionally installed set of windows should also bump up your home’s resale value if you ever decide to move. Smart shoppers know, the upside of spending a little more on for example interior storm windows will result in significant savings in the future.

There it is. Now that you’ve been given several ways to get Anderson replacement windows, the next step is up to you. Take this information and make use of it. It’s easier to do nothing, but in the end you will thank yourself for having taken action on this.